Caesar and Germania
"Although the country looks quite different, as a whole it is horrid for its jungles and ugly for its swamps“, Tacitus writes in chapter 5 of his work "Germania”. Indeed, the Romans do not seem to have any faith in this Germania. That is not only because of the country but also because of its inhabitants, whom Caesar considers highly dangerous and tough so consequently classifies them as more ferocious than the Gauls. Gaius Julius Caesar must have known this, because he extended the limits of the Roman Empire to the river Rhine in 55 BC.
The Romans first encounter the pugnacious Teutons in 113 BC.
The Cimbri, Teutoni and Ambroni left their native country in today's Schleswig and Jutland in 120 BC. Probably climatic changes triggered famines and force the tribes to search for fertile new settlement areas. Already the first battle of Noreia (Altmark, Austria)) proves the power of the Teutons. The Romans only escape complete destruction because a thunderstorm that the attackers interpret as a sign from their God Donar suddenly pops up and stops the almost decided battle. The Romans were to meet the Teutons in battle three times 109 BC, 107 BC and 105 BC until they defeat the intruders ultimately.
The Cimbri, Teutoni and Ambroni left their native country in today's Schleswig and Jutland in 120 BC. Probably climatic changes triggered famines and force the tribes to search for fertile new settlement areas. Already the first battle of Noreia (Altmark, Austria)) proves the power of the Teutons. The Romans only escape complete destruction because a thunderstorm that the attackers interpret as a sign from their God Donar suddenly pops up and stops the almost decided battle. The Romans were to meet the Teutons in battle three times 109 BC, 107 BC and 105 BC until they defeat the intruders ultimately.
Three years later in 55 BC Caesar regards the war with the Teutons as ended. Nevertheless, he wants to teach them a lesson to prevent them from further invasions of Gaul. He wants to prove that the army of the Roman Empire also can cross the river at will. When the Ubii ask Caesars ask for military help against permanent attacks of the Suebi, Caesar considers this as a "casus belli", a reason for war.
A deceitful quiet prevails over the following years. The peregrination of the Cimbri and Teutoni has shaken the Teutonic balance of power considerably in Middle and South Germany. Through this the Suebian tribes manage to penetrate these regions. In the first pre-Christian century the Roman conquest of Gaul is highlighted by Caesar's arrival on the scene. The Suebian tribe sovereign Arioivistus uses the unsteadiness among the Gallic tribes on left bank for an advance, an affront unacceptable to Caesar. At the first skirmishes the Romans are scared of the new, unknown fighters. In the first book of the "Bellum Gallicum" Caesar writes: "...a sudden fright affected the army such that spirit of everyone panicked a bit, which originated from remarks by the Gauls who declared doggedly that the Teutons would be of sturdy physiques, incredibly brave and extremely skilled in the use of arms”. Under Caesar`s forceful leadership the fright disappeared however, and Ariovistus was devastatingly beaten in southern Alsace near the banks of the Rhine.
In just ten days he sets up a bridge between Weißenthurm and Neuwied. For 18 days the army roams through the native country of the Ubii, carries out a punitive expedition to the area of the Sugambri and finally finishes the hostile attitude of the Suebi. Subsequently, Caesar leads his army back across the Rhine and has the bridge demolished.
Only once again, in 53 BC, Caesar puts a second punitive expedition against the Teutons into operation. Not far from Weißenthurm near Andernach and oppositeto the Rhine Island of "Urmitzer Werth" is the villlage of Urmitz. A 100 hectares neolithic fortification system, the most important embankment and moat installation on the Middle Rhine and the most important neolithic earth work of Central Europe is located here. Caesar orders the second bridging over the Rhine at this place. He then accepts the Rhine as the borderline between Romans and Teutons.
The thrust to the river Elbe
Within the following years the Romans confine themselves to building small fort inside Gaul. Otherwise they have confidence in their excellent road system which, in case of attack, makes speedy troop transfers to the hotspots along the Rhine possible. This, however, does not prevent the Teutons from sporadic attacks on Gallic territory. These encroachments increase and in 16 BC a military catastrophe happens. The Sugambri cross the Rhine, in all probability to the north of Bonn and destroy the 5 th Legion under the Governor Marcus Lollius. This disaster, the clades Lolliana, causes a fundamental reorganization of the Roman politics north of the Alps.
The imperial step-sons Drusus and Tiberius begin with the operations in the Alp region in 15 BC. 45 Alp tribes, among them the Raeti in upper Swabia and the Bavarian tribe of the Vindelici are enslaved Noricum which is friendly with Rome is peacefully occupied up to the river Danube.
Emperor Augustus (31 BC- 14 ACD) decides to create the Provincia Germania Magna, a large Teutonic province, by extending the existing frontline to the river Elbe, to remove the pressure from the Rhine border. A pincer attack out of the region of the North Rhine and simultaneously from the Middle Danube shall secure the Elbe as a northeast borderline. Beforehand the Alp tribes are subjugated, the Alpine passes safeguarded and today`s Austria, Noricum and Hungary, Pannonia taken into possession. Finally, Augustus plans the submission of the Marcomanni in Bohemia to establish a final north-south border. Capital of the new province is to be Cologne (Oppidum Ubiorum).
In 12 BC Drusus starts his offensive against the Teutons from the North Rhine and advances up to the Ems. He reaches the Weser in 11 BC and subjugates the region between the rivers Main, Lahn and Weser in 10 BC. He succeeds in getting to the river Elbe a year later. On the march back into the winter quarters on the Rhine his horse tumbles and Drusus breaks his lower leg. He dies of the complications in a camp between the Weser and the Rhine in the arms of his brother Tiberius on September 9, 9 BC. Tiberius takes the supreme command and accomplishes several successful campaigns in the Teuton territory. The rebellious Cherusci are subjugated in 4 BC. The region is thus regarded as a tributary province with that. Tiberius himself becomes a victim of family disputes in 6 BC and retires into a voluntary exile to Rhodes.
Then Tiberius returns to the Rhine in 4 AD and overcomes the last resistance of the Teutons. After that he starts with the last phase of Augustus' great plan. Two big march columns, from the city of Mainz up the river Main and from the area of Vienna, move in the direction of Bohemia. But the beginning of the campaign against the Marcomanni is stopped by a rebellion in Pannonia (Hungary). Tiberius moves forward in forced marches to Pannonia and Croatia where he is tangled up in battles lasting three years. When he finally ends it he gets the message of the crushing defeat of Varus in autumn of the year 9 AD.
Varus and Arminius
In 7 AD, Publius Quinctilius Varus is promoted Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Rhine Army which at the time is the most powerful army in the Roman Empire with 6 legions and 36,000 men.
Originally the family of the Varus lived in Alba Longa in the Alban mountains. The legend says that his ancestors ranked with Romulus. The name of the family, Quinctilius, is a derivation of the early first name Quintus (the fifth). The epithet Varus probably was derived from the corresponding physical unusual feature of an early ancestor and means the "crooked" or "bent".
Varus is related by marriage to the family of Augustus, certainly not a hurdle for his career. The emperor Augustus honoured him with the participation of an oriental journey in between 21 -19 BC. Further stages of his career are Legate in the Praetorian rank in the province of Asia (West turkey) in 15 BC,Consul and junior partner of Tiberius, the future emperor in 13 BC, Governor of the province of Africa (Tunisia) in 7-6 BC as well as Governor of the province of Syria (incl. Palestine) as Legatus Augusti Per Praetore (legate of Augustus in the praetorian rank) in 6 - 4 BC. The Jewish historian Josephus mentions the swift action of Varus against a messianic revolt in Judaea after the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC.
The Roman writer Velleius Paterculus writes about Varus: "Varus was from a respectable if not noble family. He was of mild character, quiet temper, a little immutable in regards to body and mind and more accustomed to a futile camp life than to active service. Varus was no scorner of money as we learn from his governorship in Syria: "He got to rich Syria as a poor man and left poor Syria as a rich man", writes Paterculus. When he is made Commander-in-Chief of the army in Germania he once said: "with the exception of voice and limbs these people have nothing human. Those who cannot be domesticated will be made meek as a lamb by the Roman law".
The task of Varus is the pacification of the tribes whereby Roman power and internal peaces are guaranteed by firm agreements with the tribes up to the river Elbe. Furthermore, the build-up of a military infrastructure controlled by Romans but executed by Teutons, the opening of free trade, above all the relationship of the Duces, the tribe sovereigns, and their social interests to the Roman rank and system of values of importance.
Varus administers justice deep in the inland region, regulates the collection of taxes and intervenes in internal tribe as well as general tribe conflicts as intermediary. The army that accompanies him is not only helpful during negotiations as a factor of power but furthermore it contributes to the improvement of the infrastructure and thus also the Roman development of the country.
The great antagonist of the Varus is Arminius. As Teutonic notes are not available Roman sources aretherefore to be cited. Tacitus writes in his "Annals" that Armininius was probably born in 16 BC as a son of the Cherusci sovereign Segimer. When Tiberius conquers the area of the Cherusci in the course of his Teuton campaigns, he wants to win Segimer as a firm ally of Rome. He offers him to educate his sons (Arminius and Flavus) in Rome as military leaders. With that a career in the Roman Empire would be certain. The Cherusci sovereign accepts and sends them to Rome in 8 BC. Arminius is trained to be a staff officer (Tribune) and accompanies the army of the Tiberius. As of the year 4 AD he commands a Cheruscian detachement in Roman services and becomes very familiar with the Latin language as well as the Roman military affairs. Because of his merits he wins the Roman civil right and the rank of a knight. Arminius returns to the homeland of the Cherusci. He marries Thusnelda, the daughter of the Cherusci sovereign Segestes, against the latter`s will.
In 9 ACD, Arminius is subordinated as a Commander of the Germanic auxiliary troops (Auxilia) to Publius Quinctilius Varus, the Governor of the Gallic provinces and Commander-in-chief of the Rhine Legions. He enjoys the absolute confidence of Varus and his staff. We do not know the circumstances under which Arminius changes sides. We only know that he succeeds in uniting the estranged tribes of the Cherusci, the Bructeri, and Marsi and possibly the Chatti, and to convince them of an attack that would lead to success under certain circumstances.
"Quinctilli Vare, legion redde!" “
In the late summer of the year 9 ADC, Varus and his troops are in the area of the river Weser and preparing as usual at that time of year, for the return-march to the winter quarters at the river Lippe and Rhine . His army consists of the Legions with the numbers 17, 18 and 19, three Equestes (mounted squadrons) as well as six Germanic Auxiliar cohorts. Apart from the soldiers, a gigantic baggage train of supply teams and family members, among them children and old men, altogether 30 000 persons prepare for departure. Of course Arminius knows exactly that such a formidable force cannot be beaten by the lightly armed Teutons in an open battle. He develops a new strategy, the guerrilla warfare.
Arminius is a frequent guest at the court banquet of the Commander-in-Chief. He also possibly talks about the revolt of a Germanic tribe which is raging south of their location. Varus decides to suppress this revolt and puts up with a detour. Germanic reconnaissance squadrons shall lead them. A secret ally of the romans is Segestes, the father-in-law of the Arminius. He discloses the ambush to Varus who ignores the warning.
At this time, Arminius probably disengages from the Roman troops and prepares the ambush. The route that the Germanic scouts have chosen leads straight into disaster. In 9 AD the region around Kalkriese is a bottleneck. The Kalkriese Mountain is thickly wooded and provided with deep brook cuts so that it becomes completely impassable. An extensive swamp faces the mountain slopes. Exactly between the mountain slopes and the swamp is the only narrow passage available that troops, riders and baggage train must take. There is no alternative. The given topography forces the Romans to give up their normal order of march and to fall into line in a gigantic twelve mile long column which is interrupted by mule carts, auxiliary troops, women and children.
Arminius makes preparations along this route and particularly at the Kalkriese bottleneck Germanic "sappers" cut grass turfs, piled these up to make embankments and provide them with pallisades. In between are sally ports from which to mount lightning attacks to attacks from cover against small groups of legionaries and, quickly pull back to again.
Still, at the first evening the Legionaries succeed in setting up an orderly camp. Varus`s biggest problems are his supplies and its immovability. He decides to burn everything superfluous and to continue the march in the direction of the Rhine. The next day pin-prick attacks by the Teutons continue. The erection of an orderly camp on the second day is only partly successful.
Tacitus describes this area as "Saltus Teutoburgiensis" which turns into the Teutoburg Forest later. However, probably meant by this is an area which comprises not only today's Teutoburger Wald but also the Wiehen Mountains including Kalkriese.
According to Tacitus, the Battle of Varus lasts for three days. It probably starts with well coordinated attacks of the Germanic auxiliary troops in the Roman army, who change sides as well as attacks from the adjacent woods. The Romans, completely surprised and unable to form a battle formation defend themselves one by one or in small groups. As fast as the Teutons spring up they disappearagain just as quickly. This process recurs non-stop. The Romans with their heavy equipment are no match for the lightly armed Teutons. Uneven terrain, the narrowness of the way and the numerous mule carts restrict their radius of action. They are subjected hopelessly to these strange tactics since the enemy does not accept battle.
Still, at the first evening the Legionaries succeed in setting up an orderly camp. Varus`s biggest problems are his supplies and its immovability. He decides to burn everything superfluous and to continue the march in the direction of the Rhine. The next day pin-prick attacks by the Teutons continue. The erection of an orderly camp on the second day is only partly successful.
On the third day the attacks go on. On top of everything it rains terribly and the losses in the Roman units become unbearable. It is an incredible struggle for the narrow gateway between mountain and bog, to render the ecape of the mass of the army. But Arminius uses his advantage and fortifies the bottleneck with embankments. The Romans begin to wear out. The rain makes the bow strings useless and the shields heavier. Slippery roots and mud affect the stability of the Roman soldiers.
At the end of the third day the Romans van no longer withstand the pressure. Panic seizes the survivors. Varus and a number of his officers commit suicide by falling on their own swords. The Roman historian Velleius Paterculus writes:" The army was surrounded by woods, marshes and ambushes and was slaughtered by the enemy up to complete destruction. The enemy butchered them like cattle and sometimes decided between life or death in anger, another time with leniency. The army commander had more courage to die but to fight and killed himself, following the example of his father and grandfather". The clades Variana is the most serious military defeat of Rome under Augustus. Barbarians had humiliated the ancient superpower Rome like never before. Almost all Romans are killed. Only a few can flee and reach Roman lines.
Arminius has Varus`s head cut off and sent to King Marbod of the Marcomanni to convince him to join the rebellion. Marbod who is interested in a compromise sends the head to Rome where it is buried in honours. Augustus is shocked by the news from Germania and supposedly said: „Quinctili Vare, legion redde!" „Quinctilius Varus, give me back my Legions "! The Legion numbers 17 -19 are never used again.
Germanicus and Arminius
Only in 11 ACD, Emperor Tiberius is able to face the new situation in Germania. Six new Legions are enlisted and marched off to the remaining two at the Rhine. Two years later, Tiberius submits to the command to Germanicus, the son of the same Drusus who fell off his horse in 9 AD and died of the consequences.
In 14 - 15 ACD, Arminius commands an extended coalition of Germanic tribes against the Roman punitive expedition superintended by Germanicus. Despite contrary view the success of the Roman enterprise is modest. The only ray of hope in the balance sheets disappointing for Germanicus, is the capture of Thusnelda, the wife of Arminius. She is handed over by her own father, Segestes to the Romans and displayed in the victory parade in Rome in 18 AC. The son of Arminius and Thusnelda she bore in captivity, Thumelicus, was trained by the Romans as a gladiator in Ravenna and died in the arena before the age of thirty.
In 15 ADC, Germanicus is in the area of the Bructeri with 80 000 men. At one of the many skirmishes and lootings, the Eagle, the battle standard of the 19th Legion also falls into his hands. Since it is not far away from the Wiehen Mountains in the Teutoburg Forest he decides to go with survivors from Varus`s battle to the scene of the disaster and with their help to bury the dead still lying on the battlefield..
In the "Annals" Tacitus describes how the Romans find the battlefield. In connection with this, it must be pointed out that the Teutons only buried their own people after the battle. The bodies of the dead enemies and cattle were left the way they had died.
"Now, in Caesar (Germanicus) the desire was roused to pay last homage to the soldiers and their army commander whereby the entire army present was filled with painful sympathy for their relatives and friends and because of the grievous wars and the human fate. Caecina was sent on ahead to explore the remote woodlands and to guide over bridges and dams across the marshy land and the deceitful marshy soil. And now they got to the scene of battle ghastly to watch and full of terrible memories. The first camp of Varus indicated the work of three Legions because of its layout and its size. Then they recognized by the half collapsed embankments and the low moat that the dissolved remains had encamped. In the middle of the open field the bleached remains lay scattered or in heaps, depending on whether people had fled or had offered resistance. Next to it were fragments of weapons and horse skeletons and at the same time they found skulls nailed to trees, in the neighbouring groves the altars of the barbarians at whom they had slaughtered the Tribunes and the Centurions of the first rank. The people that survived the defeat and escaped battle and captivity recounted where the Legates had fallen, the Eagles were seized. They pointed to the spot where Varus was wounded the first time and where he committed suicide with his wretched right hand. They indicated where Arminius had addressed his troops from a rostrum, how many gallows for the prisoners there were, what sort of torture excavations he built and how he cockily scoffed at the roman eagles eagles and ensigns.
Germanicus who desperately tries to confront and destroy Arminius and his troops often gets into situations, which rather means his end as that one of Arminius. Tiberius realizes that Germanicus will not become master of the situation in Germania in the foreseeable future. He is disappointed by the military situation and worried about the enormous costs which burden the treasury. In 16 AD Tiberius finally recalls Germanicus and declares the Rhine the national frontier in 16 A. He hopes for a break in the Germanic tribe coalition and is not disappointed.
Arminius does not want to be content with the previous successes but looks for an alliance with King Marbod in expectation of further clashes with Rome.Once again Marbod rejects his proposal. In 17 AD Arminius leads a successful campaign against Marbod who has no other alternative than to retreat to Bohemia. Arminius cannot develop his military success any further, however, since the Germanic nobility rallies against him. He dies in 21AD at the hands of one of his relatives. It presumably is Segestes, the father of Thusnelda who murders him.
Tacitus on Arminius
Tacitus appreciates Arminius as follows:
"He was undisputedly the liberator of Germania and has challenged the Roman people not as other kings and army commanders at its small beginnings but when the empire was at the peak of its power. He was not always successful in battle but in war he remained undefeated. His life lasted thirty-seven years. He ruled for twelve years Even today, the barbarian tribes still praise him …“