The Crimea War 1853 - 1856
In July 1853 a Russian army occupied the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia (in modern Romania) in response to a dispute over control of the Holy Places in Turkish-controlled Jerusalem. Religious differences were certainly a catalyst in the Crimean War. Control of access to religious sites in the Holy Land had been a cause of tension between Catholic France and Orthodox Russia for a number of years and in 1853, the conflict came to a head with rioting in Bethlehem, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire ruled by Turkey. A number of Orthodox monks were killed during fighting with French monks. Tsar Nicholas I. blamed the Turks for these deaths.
Tsar Nicholas I demanded that the dispute be resolved in favour of the Orthodox Church and sent his representative Menshikov to Constantinople (now Istanbul) with demands on the Porte (the Turkish court). These demands were not met however and Nicholas took the opportunity to mobilise the Russian army against Turkey, which at this point was beginning to lose its grip on its empire. Nicholas referred to Turkey and its weakening empire as the 'sick man of Europe' and historians have argued that he had ambitions of his own in the eastern Mediterranean. The British and French, for their part, were concerned about Russian expansion in the region and the potential threat to their trade routes. Britain and France, in an alliance designed to control Russian expansionism in Europe, agreed to support the Turks, and sent naval forces to Constantinople.
Turkey Declares War On Russia
Initial Russian operations against the Ottoman Empire were conducted in Romania with the Russian army crossing the River Pruth into Moldavia on 2 July 1853. In response Turkey declared war on Russia on 5 October. On 4 November, the Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on Turkey's Black Sea coast, sinking seven frigates and other shipping. The British and French responded quickly. In March 1854, they declared war on Russia expecting, with their naval supremacy, a quick victory.
For some of the combatants, the commitment to the ideals of honour and glory outweighed their preparation for the realities of war. By 1854 the British army had experienced close to forty years of relative peace. Consequently, there were few battle-hardened veterans among the British forces in the Crimea. During this time, drastic measures were taken to reduce the cost of supporting a standing army. Most of the British army's commanding officers last saw action during the Napoleonic Wars, in particular, at Waterloo (1815), or had since purchased their commissions. Some British units, at their commanding officers' expense, adopted flashy, brightly colored uniforms. The officers of these units seemed to enjoy the pomp-and-circumstance of the parade-ground more than they understood the mechanics of war. The troops were, nonetheless, highly disciplined units. Overall, the successful battlefield tactics of the Napoleonic Wars were still the focus of the soldier's training. While the technology of weaponry was improving, the standard conduct of war was slow to evolve. Recent engagements involving the British in India, Afghanistan, and South Africa and the French in Algeria had done little to alter the typical battle plan, although the French were better prepared as a result of their campaigns in North Africa.
The First War Photographer
After many decades of relative stability in European foreign affairs, the course of the war generated keen public interest. The press covered the conflict in detail through correspondent reports. For the first time photographers like Roger Fenton and James Robertson were present to document and publicize the events of the war realistically. In 1855 Fenton went to the Crimean War on assignment for a print dealer to photograph the troops, with photographic assistant Marcus Sparling, two servants and a large van of equipment. Despite high temperatures, breaking several of his ribs, and suffering from cholera, he managed to make over 350 usable large format negatives.
An exhibition of 312 prints was soon on show in London. Sales were not as good as expected, possibly because the war came to an end. According to Susan Sontag, in her work “Regarding the pain of others”, Fenton was sent to the Crimean War as the first official war photographer at the insistence of Prince Albert. The photographs produced were to be used to offset the general aversion of the British people to an unpopular war, and to counteract the antiwar reporting of The Times. Pictures produced were to be converted into woodblocks and published in the less critical Illustrated London News as well as being published in book form and displayed in a gallery. The War Ministry ordered Fenton to avoid pictures of dead, injured or mutilated soldiers.
An Anglo-French expeditionary force moved to Varna, on Turkey's Black Sea coast. When the Russians refused to accept proffered peace terms, the decision was taken to destroy Russian naval power in the Black Sea by attacking Sevastopol - a port and naval base in the Crimea. Between 13th and 18th September 1854, the expeditionary force, comprising about 51,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry of British, French and Turkish troops, landed at Kalamatia Bay, some 30 miles north of their objective. The landings were unopposed by the Russians. W.H. Russell, an Irish journalist writing for The Times, witnessed the early allied operations and noted that 'The French, though they had tents, had no cavalry; the Turks had neither cavalry nor food; the British had cavalry, but they had neither tents nor transport, nor ambulances nor litters.' It was clear that there were flaws in the organisation of the joint forces.
Attack On Sevastopol
On 19 September, the allies started their move south towards the strategically important city of Sevastopol. There was a minor skirmish on the Bulganek River on 21 September, paving the way for the first set-piece battle of the war which took place on the following day at Alma.
A Russsian force of 36,400 men waited for the Anglo-French units on heights above the River Alma, on the route to the port of Sevastopol, and it was here on 20th September that the first battle of the Crimean War took place. The Battle of Alma saw the combined British and French armies attack a Russian force that was occupying high land above the River Alma. The French were on the right, with their right flank next to the sea and the British to their left. Facing the allies were some 33,000 Russian troops. In order to drive forward the advance to Sevastapol, it was necessary for the allies to cross the River Alma and then attack well-defended positions on higher ground. So confident were the Russians that the allies would be defeated that picnic parties came out of the city to watch the expected victory. The French opened the assault but they faltered, pinned down in vineyards below the Russian positions. Following the order 'The infantry will advance', an uphill attack was taken up by the British Light and Second Divisions. It was a powerful offensive and the Russians were forced to flee their positions, having lost 1,755 men and sustained some 6,000 casualties. The British lost 362 men with 1,600 wounded.
As the Russians withdrew, the Allies closed in on Sevastopol, marching round the port to the south to set up bases at Kamish (French) and Balaklava (British). Once they had secured their operating the allies set about besieging the city. However, as they only held positions to the south of Sevastopol, this allowed the Russians free access to the city from the north and east, enabling them to threaten the allied bases and forces.A bombardment of Russian defences began on 17th October, but did little appreciable damage, and eight days later the Russians almost broke the siege at the Battle of Balaklava.
The hilly battlefield consisted of two valleys divided by low hills and ridges, with the terrain consisting of open grassland. The British force was divided between the two valleys. The southern valley was held by the British cavalry's Heavy Brigade with the Light Brigade in the northern valley, under the command of the Major General the Earl of Cardigan. The overall command of the British cavalry was exercised by the Earl of Lucan. A French force was also present. The Russian force was significantly larger than that of the allies, but was hampered by poor discipline, poor leadership, and inferior weapons.
The Charge Of The Light Brigade
The battle started with a successful Russian attack on Turkish positions. This led to the Russians breaking through into the valley of Balaklava where British forces were encamped. The Russian advance was intended to disrupt the British base and attack British positions near Sevastopol from the rear.
The initial Russian advance into the southern valley was repulsed by the British Heavy Brigade, forcing the Russians to retreat to their artillery, which was strategically positioned along the ridges above the valley. The Light Brigade was ordered by Raglan to "prevent the enemy carrying away the guns", a notably badly-worded instruction that prompted the infamous Charge of the Light Brigade.
This was an ill-advised cavalry charge, led by Major General the Earl of Cardigan. the Earl of Lucan, in overall command of the heavy and light cavalry, received an order from the army commander Lord Raglan stating that "Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly to the front, follow the enemy, and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. Horse artillery may accompany. French cavalry is on your left. Immediate."
In response to the order, Cardigan led 673 cavalry men straight into the valley between the Fedyukhin Heights and the Causeway Heights, famously dubbed the "Valley of Death" by the poet Tennyson. The opposing Russian forces included around 20 battalions of infantry supported by over fifty artillery pieces. These forces were deployed on both sides and at the opposite end of the valley.
It appears that the order was understood by Cardigan to refer to the mass of Russian guns in a redoubt at the end of the valley, around a mile away, when Raglan had in fact been referring to a set of redoubts on the reverse slope of the hill forming the left side of the valley (from the point of view of the cavalry). Although these latter redoubts were clearly visible from Raglan's vantage point, they were hidden from the view of the Light Brigade on the floor of the valley.
The Light Brigade was able to engage the Russian forces at the end of the valley and force them back from the redoubt, but suffered heavy casualties and was soon forced to retire. Lucan failed to provide any support for Cardigan. The troops of the Heavy Brigade entered the mouth of the valley but did not advance further. The French cavalry, the Chasseurs d'Afrique, were more effective in that they broke the Russian line on the Fedyukhin Heights and later provided cover for the remaining elements of the Light Brigade as they withdrew.
"Deepest Feeling Of Regret"
Cardigan survived the battle and subsequently described the engagement in a speech delivered at the Mansion House in London: “In the attack at Balaklava, 400 horses were killed or rendered unserviceable; 370 were killed in action, and the remainder were in such a sad state from numerous wounds that they were obliged to be destroyed the following morning. But, in connection with that charge, I have to mention a much more serious circumstance — I mean the sad loss of human life that then occurred. No fewer than twenty-six officers and 276 non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, making a total of 300, were killed and wounded in that action. It is for this reason that I never can allude to the subject without the deepest feelings of regret.”
As the Light Brigade went in, Raglan's infantry finally arrived on the battlefield, but their only success was the recapture of the westernmost redoubts on the Causeway Heights. The British had lost possession of a considerable amount of ground, including the majority of their forward defences, as well as the only metalled road in the area.
The Balaklava clasp was awarded to those soldiers who had taken part in any of the actions, and to a number of those also present but not engaged The Balaklava clasp is unique in being the only clasp ever awarded by the British Government for what was technically a defeat.
Battle Of Inkermann
Ten days later the Russians attacked again, in what came to be known as the Battle of Inkermann, or "the Soldier's Battle". The battle raged for almost the whole day, and was prosecuted in thick fog, heavy undergrowth, and with little if any generalship shown on either side. As dusk fell, the British held the field (having received useful, if belated, help from the French). The numbers of the Russian dead left on the field exceeded the numbers of Allied troops that had been attacked.
After the battle of Inkermann, the weather deteriorated to such an extent that further action in the field was precluded, and the activities of the Allies were restricted to siege operations. During the winter of 1854/55 the shortcomings of the British military supply system were thrown into sharp focus, as thousands of men died from illness, exposure and malnutrition - four times as many died from disease as did from enemy action. One Regiment, nominally over a thousand men strong, was reduced to a total of seven men by January 1855.
With the arrival of spring came the huts and winter clothing from England; too late to save the lives of the thousands who had died as a result of their absence. Military operations continued to be restricted to trench warfare until 7th June 1855 when the outer defences of Sebastopol were assaulted, with the British capturing the Quarries and the French the Mamelon. A coup de grace was planned for the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, 18th June, as a way of cementing the new friendship between the British and their French allies. The assaults on the Malakoff and the Redan failed, partly due to incompetence on the part of the general officers commanding, and Lord Raglan sank into a decline, dying on the 28th June 1855.
Russian Attempt To Break Through
On the 16th August 1855, the Russian army under Prince Gortchakoff attempted to break through the Allied lines at the Traktir Bridge over the River Tchernaya, but was driven off by a combined French/Sardinian force a third its size. The Sardinians had joined the Allies in January 1855. Medals bearing the unofficial clasp "Traktir" or "Tchernaia" are occasionally found; these clasps are believed to have been added to their medals by those French military and naval personnel who were awarded the British medal.
On the 8th September 1855 the Allies again stormed Sebastopol, with the French successful this time at the Malakoff. The British attack on the Redan failed once more. The Malakoff, however, was the key to the town's defences, and at its loss the Russians evacuated Sebastopol, having made a spirited defence which had kept the best troops in the world at bay for over eleven months. After the death of Czar Nicholas in spring 1855 and the fall of Sevastopol in the autumn, the new Czar, Alexander II, offered to negotiate peace. At the Congress of Paris (25 February - 30 March 1856), Russia was obliged to evacuate the territories she had occupied and to withdraw her fleet from the Black Sea, which was declared a neutral zone open only to merchant shipping.
Allied casualties were up to17,500 British, 90,000 French, 35,000 Turkish and 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease. The Russians had about 110.000 casualties.
Maladministration in the British army
One of the significant features of the Crimean War was the dreadful conditions and neglect endured by the troops. Not only were living conditions very poor, but medical supplies for troops in the field were also inadequate. W.H. Russell's reports for The Times revealed the true depth of suffering and maladministration, particularly during the winter of 1854. These accounts upset Queen Victoria, who described them as these 'infamous attacks against the army which have disgraced our newspapers'. Prince Albert, who took a keen interest in military matters, commented that 'the pen and ink of one miserable scribbler is despoiling the country'.
But a public outcry concerning the care of the soldiers eventually led to a number of nurses, including Florence Nightingale, a nurse educated by deaconesses in Kaiserswerth, being sent to the hospital at Scutari, across the Bosphorus from Constantinople. Another famous woman who cared for the sick and wounded was Mary Seacole, who came from Jamaica. Other improvements in medical care were developed, including the first hospital train built by the firm of Peto, Brassey and Betts, and the first prefabricated hospital designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel. This hospital with, initially, 22 wards was erected at Renkioi in Turkey. Although the care of sick and injured soldiers improved, disease had been the biggest killer in the Crimean War.
